Cytogenetics Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cytogenetics - Coursework Example Other Cytogenetic techniques include Fluorescent in-situ hybridization, Centromere or C-banding, replication banding, Sub-microscopic telomere analysis, distamycin staining and Comparative Genomic Hybridization (1). Abnormalities in chromosomes can also be identified by non-cytogenetic methods, like that of Microarray analysis and Molecular analysis of Telomeric sequences (1). Human numerical abnormalities are now measured by the advent of cytogenetics, which include Downs Syndrome, Turners syndrome and Klinefelters syndrome. The advance of molecular cytogenetics started in 1980s with the advent of Fluorescent in-situ hybridization. Later than FISH, technique of chromosome microdissection came in picture in which micromanipulation and examination of chromosome was carried out. This method lead to study in detail the aberration in chromosomal structure that could be isolated cloned and thereby studied in even finer detail. This method is also been put to medical use like in diagnosis of cancer and in hematological malignancies where it is used to determine the chromosomal translocations in the malignant cells, thus making the diagnosis easier and thereby the treatment becomes more specific. It is also used in the identification of the abnormality in myeloid leukemia (2). The future focuses on molecular cytogenetics include Comparative genomic hybridization microarrays; Single-Polynucleotide based Polymerization based karyotyping. Report for the clinician referred to: 1. Observation and background: Given sample of Mrs. Krerr has been analyzed and karyotyping was carried out based on the G-banding Karyotype. There were clear indications of translocation between in Chromosome 4 and 11 having t(4;11)(q21:p13) phenotype. Based on published literature and reports translocation in chromosome 4; 11 was found to be associated with high risk infant acute leukemia (3) which arises due to illegitimate re-combination between MLL and AF4 gene. Identification of this gene translocation in early stage of life cycle allows us to define the treatment regime in subsequent development of diseases (4). The mechanistic aspect of this translocation is largely unknown but researchers are able to map the genomic breakpoints and, in this particular case it was found to be hyper-sensitive to Dnase I and the cleavage site for Topoisomerase II. 2. Probable Gene involved and proteins: a) AF4p12, also known as FRYL gene homologous to Drosophila FRY gene could be involved in maintaining integrity of polarized cell during morphogenesis (6). b) MLL 11 Q23 transcriptional regulators. 3. Further investigations: Observed karyotype and interpretation needs to be validated based on little more cytogenetic analysis including Q- banding to obtain high resolution banding pattern to locate precise translocation. Similarly NOR (Silver) staining will help to identify translocation due to involvement of shorter arm translocation in given sample. But it is highly recommended to use Q-PCR methodology using fusion specific primer (i.e. primer which amplifies fusion region of MLL and AF4). The results of PCR amplification can

American Popular Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

American Popular Culture - Essay Example 2. How have popular culture trends and electronic media formulated your views regarding the following topics: social responsibility and civility; family obligations; the human body; justice, law, and order; sexual identity; friendship and love Popular (pop) culture is literally defined as the vernacular culture that prevails on any given society. â€Å"The content of popular culture is determined by the daily interactions, needs and desires, and cultural ‘moments’ that make up the everyday lives of the mainstream.† (â€Å"Wikipedia†, 2006). Culture is a way of defining oneself, and is accepted or regarded by each person in their own way, and yet mass media and mass culture also lets people define themselves in relation to everyone else in mass society. How Have Popular Culture Trends and Electronic Media Formulated Your Views Regarding the Following Topics: Social Responsibility and Civility; Family Obligations; The Human Body; Justice, law and Order; Sexual Identity; Friendship and Love? Popular culture trends are a significant part of all of our lives, and greatly affect the way we feel about ourselves, and about each other, on a daily basis. Whether or regardless of if we recognize it or not, popular culture reflects on us all in way or another. In regards to social responsibility and civility, I believe that due to the heightened propaganda status, or in other words the fact that the media is such a huge part of all of our day to day lives, our assumption and beliefs of what our personal social responsibilities should be have dropped somewhat. In the past, there was a certain aura of politeness and classiness if you will; characteristics which do not seem to be as evident in today’s world. When discussing how pop culture trends have formulated my views regarding family obligations; this is another subject that I would say relates highly to social responsibility and civility in a way. If we take

Importance in the novel Essay Example for Free

Importance in the novel Essay Explore the portrayal of Serena Joy and the Commander in the early part of the novel. Also estimate their characters importance in the novel. Serena Joy is portrayed as a frustrated, hostile and rude woman who is full of hate; which in some respects you could say she is, but her character runs much more deeply than is first apparent to the reader. This is portrayed through her characters words, actions and pursuits in many different ways. An example of this is her frustration at the little amount of freedom she is allowed. Although when compared to a character like, Offred she has a lot of freedom, she feels she doesnt, It is a little thing, but in this household little things mean a lot. , Many of the wives have such gardens, its something for them to order and maintain and care for. By having a garden like this, and being allowed to take charge of it, and look after it, she feels this gives her some importance in the community. It is a distraction, a place of escape for her from the life that she leads, which is boring and she is not happy with. This is the only freedom she is allowed in the life she leads now, which although it doesnt mean a lot to her, it should be treasured because in Gilead to have freedom like that is unthinkable to most; this portrays Serena Joy to be a women who takes things and her status in the elite, for granted. The tulips are red, a darker crimson towards the stem; as if they had been cut and are beginning to heal there. The garden to Serena Joy is also something she can take her frustration out on, as she is not supposed to harm Offred. An aspect portrayed to us immensely about her character is her great longing for children; this is shown in many of the domestic pursuits she carries out, i. e. gardening and knitting, They arent scarves for grown men but for children. Although these are scarves supposed to be made for the Angels who are grown men, she makes the scarves in children sizes. This shows the reader how she is always thinking about children, and how she longs to have children of her own. Her garden also portrays these feelings she has about children of her own, Many of the wives have such gardens, it is something for them to order and maintain and care for. She treats her garden, like you would expect her to treat a child, by caring for it lovingly with great affection. She is rude and hostile towards Offred, because she hates the fact that she is there because she cant have children of her own, also it must be a humiliating experience for her, the thought of her husband making love to another woman, So, youre the new one, she said. She didnt step aside to let me in, she just stood there in the door way, blocking the entrance. She wanted me to feel that I could not come into the house unless she said so. This is where the reader, feels a little compassion for Serena Joy, as she is portrayed as an awful women, who really has bought this predicament on herself; but it must be humiliating for her. Her husband is sleeping with another women, and as far as she is concerned it is because she cannot have children. She also knows that this life that she has helped to promote, is awful and she hates the way in which she has to live now. Her name is also trying to portray an image of serenity and joy, which once she as a young woman had portrayed, but now with a new way of living, her nature has come to contradict her name, The woman sitting in front of me was Serena Joy. Or had once been. So it was worse than I thought. The Commander is portrayed as a man who will use his power and authority to get what he wants. He rebels against his own way of life that he has fought to promote, which portrays to us that he too is unhappy with the way he has to live his life, he isnt supposed to be here, He is violating custom. I feel that as we read further into the novel, the way he uses his power to get what he wants will be even more strongly portrayed as part of his character to the reader. We dont get vivid descriptions of the Commander at first. He is a character which you know is there but we dont get to meet or see at the beginning of the novel. This portrays him as a slightly mysterious, and you never quite know when to expect him to turn up, The commander stops, gets into the car, disappears, and Nick shuts the door. His clothes also gives an awe of uncertainty and mystery as he has to dress all in black, which is the colour closely associated to death. Hes a character of great importance in the society of Gilead, and we see this at the Ceremony. We see at the ceremony that he is a highly influential character too, We watch him: every inch, every flicker. Everyone watches him and wants to be him, which shows he is influential, this though is just because of the power, importance and freedom he has, which all the other characters can only dream about. The first description we get of the Commander portrays him as a very ordinary looking man, When you get down as far as the chin he looks like a vodka ad, in a glossy magazine, of times gone by. He looks like a friendly approachable man, which slightly contradicts the mysterious feel he has portrayed at the very beginning of the novel. As they are both characters of great power within the society, I feel they are very important in the novel as a whole, and as the book goes on their importance will increase. They are both very strong characters, and both feel that they are hard done by compared to how they used to live but they arent when compared to characters like Offred. This is also true of many people in the world today. They are two characters in the novel who care only for themselves and nobody else, even though they are very lucky with what they have.

Organisational Risk Management in Project Management

Organisational Risk Management in Project Management CHAPTER 2 2.1 Preview This chapter provides the reader about the theory and rationale behind the use of Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) on project management and its methodologies available in the market. It will also cover the work of different authors to afford better understanding of the subjected area i.e. Project management, Risk analysis and Organisational risk analysis. The source of information of this literature review is mainly from books, journals and white papers. 2.2 Introduction Through this literature review one can know what others understanding about this study i.e. nothing but historical perspectives. First part of the literature focuses on project management and risk analysis and risk analysis types, second part of this literature focuses on Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) and Role of ORA in Project management. It mainly concentrates on Project management, risk analysis and organisational risk analysis. 2.3 Introduction to Project Management: PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge as defined by the Project Management Institute — PMI):Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. (PMI 2004) According to James P. Lewis â€Å"The Project management is facilitating the planning, scheduling and controlling of all activities that must be done to achieve project objectives† (James P. Lewis: 2007) PRINCE 2 project management methodology: The planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of the project and the motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the specified cost, quality and performance. A project is usually one time activity with a well defined set of desired and results. It can be divided into subtasks that must be accomplished in order to achieve the project goals. In this day and age also it is assumed that project management can be enhanced by scientific methods. There is a very strong reason why these beliefs are created, it all accounts to the fact that todays modern world has given professionals numerous amount of opportunities to execute their projects successfully. Such are the kind of investment options that are given to project investors. They are briefed with all the minute details so that they feel that their investment is secure. They also make sure that the estimated time of completion and the end can be calculated at the beginning of the project itself. The decisions that are taken on a technical basis or which are taken looking at the low opportunity costs that it presents are reversible in nature. The demand for resources can also be calculated once the initial parameters such as the duration and time frame of the project are estimated. Due to the advancement in technology even the most terrible consequences can be predicted. à ¢â‚¬Å"The failure of the project was due to the lack of skills rather than an inappropriate feasibility, suitability or acceptability of the solution. This is a normal–science view of project management.† (Charette and Robert, 1996) The projection of ideas and activities into new accomplishments are one of the common characteristics of all projects. There are many different definitions of what constitutes project management such as â€Å"An unique set of co-ordinated activities, with definite starting and finishing points, undertaken by an individual or a team to meet specific objectives within a definite period of time, cost and performance parameters† (Office of Government Commerce). (Web4, 2009) J. Pinto and Prescott (1990) stated, â€Å"Researchers in project management need to first and most importantly offer a comprehensive, inclusive, and clear definition of project success before attempting to undertake studies of the project implementation process†. (J.Pinto and Prescott, 1990) The modern project management started in 1950s, before this period projects were executed in an unplanned manner and the methods and tools used for execution were not professional in nature. The importance of project management is a very important topic because all organisations i.e. either be they are small or large organisations, those are involved in implementing new accomplishments. These accomplishments may be diverse, such as, the improvement of an innovative product, introducing a new range of products in a manufacturing base, a promotional advertisement or a major construction project. In the 1980s the focus was more on the quality of work. Globalisation played a huge role in the 1990s as we were trying to improve our economy, the 2000s saw projects with decreased time frames. A new field known as project management was developing from all new areas of application which included construction, engineering, telecommunications, and defence. This emerging field has now become an important part of our economy as it has produced a string of fabulous results. Hence it is now being applied by the corporate world as well as the government. Duncan Haughey (2008) explained some main definitions of what project management is: â€Å"Project management is not a continuous process. It has a definite beginning and end.† â€Å"Project management uses various tools to measure accomplishments and track project tasks. These include Work Breakdown Structures, Gantt charts and PERT charts.† â€Å"Projects frequently need resources on an ad-hoc basis as opposed to organisations that have only dedicated full-time positions.† â€Å"Project management reduces risk and increases the chance of success.† â€Å"Successful project management is delivering your projects on time, to brief and within budget.† (Duncan Haughy, 2008) 2.3.1 Methodology of Project Management: According to Bradley (2002) Project management methodology means â€Å"Project Management Methodology focuses on the project and can be in any industry and any type of projects ranging from construction to aerospace industries and from projects of Financial to IT in nature, it encompasses all projects† The above diagram shows the main components of one of the main project management methodology. Some of the elements like project start-up and project closure occur only once. The remaining elements like planning, managing and controlling, form an interactive cycle that may repeat many times before the completion of the project. In other words we can also say project management is the discipline of planning, organising and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific projects goals and objectives. Each and every project is different in nature. Any project would involve a certain amount of risk and hence require perfect planning and execution if they have to succeed. The main aim of project management is to predict any complications or problems in the project well before hand so that when the project plan is made all these factors can also be taken into consideration and hence the chances of the project being completed successfully would be much higher. Almost every project we do in todays business world involve a risk of some kind: change in customer needs, unrealistic time scales, inappropriate staff, poor project specifications , failure to manage user expectations could delay the project. Projects need to be performed and delivered under certain constraints. Traditionally these constraints have been listed as scope, time and quality. This is also called as ‘project management triangle. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without affecting others. The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project, scope refers to what must be done to produce the projects end result and cost refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. Increasing Scope ( Increasing Time + Increasing Cost Decreasing Time ( Increasing Cost + Reducing Scope Tight Budget ( Increase Time + Reducing Scope. If we modify any of the factors, the other two has to be changed, if not the risk may appear high. But formal risk analysis and risk management can help you to assess these risks and decide what action to take to minimize disruptions to your project plans. According to J. Davidson Frame (2007) the basic outline of project management is described below Project managers bear ultimate responsibility for making things happen. Traditionally, they have carried out this role as mere implementers. To do their jobs they needed to have basic administrative and technical competencies. Today they play a far broader role. In addition to the traditional skills, they need to have business skills, customer relations skills, and political skills. Psychologically, they must be results-oriented self-starters with a high tolerance for ambiguity, because little is clear-cut in todays tumultuous business environment. Shortcomings in any of these areas can lead to project failure. – (J. Davidson Frame, 2007) Project management is discipline that applies to any project; every company has their own way of doing their projects. The project management is not very easy it is totally a leadership position and with technical talent it cannot be done. Project manager without enough experience cannot hold for a long-time on the same project if the assumption of the company goes wrong in selecting the project manager it will be in risk. (Sanjay Murthi, Preventive Risk Management for Software Projects) 2.4 Risk Analysis: The word ‘RISK derives from the early Italian risicare, which means ‘TO DARE. (Websters Dictionary: 1989) One of the most important activities in project management is to identify and manage the uncertainties and problems during the project tenure. When dealing with research and development projects it must be made note of that the number of events present are very high which could alter the course of the project The amount of risk involved in the project would mainly depend on the size of the project. The contractors of the project are the people who deal with the risks of the project, their main duties would involve to identify risks. Then they study them and find as solution so that could remove or minimize them. Apart form this they should also have a clear understanding of the different types of risk involved and ways as to how they can be managed and projects can be completed in a risk free manner. (The Owners Role in Project Risk Management National Research Council (U.S.A). Committee for Oversight and Assessment of U.S. the national academic press, Washington DC). A report that shows assets, vulnerabilities, likelihood of damage, estimates of the costs of recovery, summaries of possible defensive measures and their costs and estimated probable savings from better protection. A risk analysis is the process of assessing the level of risk involved, this is also known as a threat and risk assessment. A threat is a harmful act such as the deployment of a virus or illegal network penetration. A risk is the expectation that a threat may succeed and the potential damage that can occur. (Web1, 2009) Risk analysis allows you to examine the risks that your organization faces. It is the process of systematically identifying and assessing the potential risks and uncertainties that occur when trying to achieve a certain goal (like reaching a target income or finishing a project), and then finding a feasible strategy for most efficiently controlling those risks. ‘The systematic process to understand the nature of and to deduce the level of risk. It provides the basis for risk evaluation and decisions about risk treatment. (AS/NZS 4360:2004 (p. 4). According to Michael R. Greenberg †Risk Analysis ranked among the top 10 journals in the ISI Journal Citation Reports under the social sciences, mathematical methods category is designed to meet the need for organization, integration, and communication and provide a focal point for new developments in the field.† (Michael R. Greenberg: 2008) Evidence from the literature suggests that project managers perform risk analysis because somebody else, e.g. their client, the parent company or the Government, has demanded it (Boothroyd, 1996; Smith, 1998). The analysis of risk is being increasingly viewed as a field in itself, and the demand for a more orderly and formal treatment of risk is great. This international journal is committed to publishing critical empirical research, conference proceedings, and commentaries dealing with risk issues. In other terms we can say the measure of risk can be determined as a product of threat, vulnerability and asset value in an organisation. Risk = Asset * Threat * Vulnerability. Risk analysis may play an important role in cost- benefit studies, which compare the costs of a particular action or project against its potential benefits. It is a systematic study of uncertainties and risks we encounter in business, engineering and many other areas. Risk analysts seek to identify the risks faced by an organization or a business unit, understand how and when they arise, and estimate the impact of adverse outcomes. Techniques used in risk analysis include sensitivity analysis, probability analysis, simulation and modeling. Risk analysis may be used to develop an organizational risk profile, and also may be the first stage in risk management program. Risk analysis may be undertaken to varying degrees of detail depending upon the risk, the purpose of the analysis, and the information, data and resources available. In todays world where competition has become global, it is very important that firms control the different kinds of risk that they are dealing with as it has become an essential part in achieving corporate success. The people who are involved such as customers, investors and others asking companies for complete transparency on their investments. Thus risk analysis is necessary to protect an organisations competitive position. Most industries are particularly plagued by risks, but it has been slow in realising the potential benefits of sound and systematic risk management (Al-Bahar and Crandall, 1990; Ward et. al. 1991; Thomson and Perry, 1992; Flanagan and Norman, 1993; Raftery, 1994; Fellows, 1996; Edward and Bowen, 1998).While coming for the software industries risk analysis and management are a sequential progression that help in guiding a software team in understanding and managing risks. A risk is a potential problem, it might happen, it might not. But regardless of the outcome it is really good idea to identify it, assess its probability of occurrence, estimate the impact and establish a contingency plan should the problem actually occurs. According to Bernstein â€Å"the mystery of risk is a critical step in the development of modern society. One can discuss the validity of his conclusion, but there should be no doubt that risk and uncertainty are important concepts to address for supporting decision-making in many situations†. This Risk Analysis may be qualitative, semi-qualitative or quantitative or a combination of these three, depending on the circumstances. The criticality of risk analysis doesnt wholly depend on identifying the risk factors. It also depends on categorizing them according to their threat level. So let us see how the whole concept of risk analysis starts. There are two types of risk analysis. Both these methods are very important in the assessment of risk and can be executed in any order. It is very important to understand the difference between these two risks as there is a very thin line separating them. Those are: Quantitative Risk Analysis Qualitative Risk Analysis (Identification of types of risk analysis) 2.5. Quantitative Risk Analysis: Quantitative Risk Analysis has become an important component of project management. Quantitative risk analysis attempts to assign independently objective monetary values to the components of the risk assessment and to the assessment of the potential loss. According to Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK  ® Guide, Third edition 2004, Project Management Institute) â€Å"Quantitative Risk Analysis is performed on risks that have been prioritized by the Qualitative Risk Analysis process as potentially and substantially impacting project ‘s completing demands. The Quantitative Risk Analysis process analyzes the effect of those risk events and assigns a numerical rating to those risks.† (PMBOK Guide, 2004) This method gives the project manager a foresight as to how the project would progress if risks associated with it would occur. Hence due to this method the project mangers are able to counter these risks and also account to better execution of projects. A quantitative risk analysis offers the following distinct advantages: much more neutrality is involved in this assessment offers much more advantages to management when compared to assessment techniques More powerful selling tool to management It is very flexible in nature and can be moulded to different situations. It can be adjusted according to the needs of specific industries. Its appeal is very universal in nature and hence does not give rise to much disagreements The base facts of the analysis are very convincing ones. In order to implement quantitative risk analysis, the total estimated value that would account to the losses that would occur due to time delay, theft or loss of data is to be calculated. Then a probability analysis is done so that the chances of the risk occurring can be calculated. After all this is done in the final step the annual loss expectancy is calculated. (Miller). A quantitative risk analysis analyses the results that certain controversial units would have on outcomes that we are most concerned about such as loss, profit and investment returns. Quantitative risk gives different perspectives on different people: To the security consultant: To attract newly started businesses by adapting quantitative analysis to access projects that were out of reach in the past. If the projects met up to the predicted return on investment then it could serve as a better tool for marketing. To the companys upper management: Less vulnerable to company politics time required for assessing proposal validity is very less Inter- relates final results to financial aims and goals. Quantitative risk analysis assists managers in analyzing whether the projects can be completed in a particular time frame and within the required estimated budget. It also helps in finding out the key parameters that would determine the success or failure of the project. It also helps in finding out whether the project is worth investing in for investors. But all these data should have some historical backing otherwise they would be rendered meaningless. These data should be updated from time to time during the due course of the project taking the actual input parameters into consideration. This in other terms is also known as â€Å"Garbage In – Garbage Out. Even though all this is done project management is subject to certain biases. The most basic solution is to collect data from qualitative project management software. This kind of integration has already been implemented and has been successful in the past as well. Quantitative risk analysis tools initiate Monte Carlo process to find out how risks would have an impact on project schedules. The most well known methods for simulating risks and other problems is Event Chain Methodology. In this methodology all the projects tat are present are effected by certain external parameters which could in turn change the face of the project. These events should be analysed with the help of the qualitative risk management software. This is an important aspect as these measures could give rise to event chains that can alter the course of the project. By finding out these event chains the risks involved can be reduced. Quantitative risk analysis is more related to implementing safety measures when compared to qualitative risk analysis is. This risk analysis when implemented by companies tries to protect the firm from every defined risk. It also helps in determining which counter method can be used for minimizing the risks involved with projects. In this method the risk assessments are generally represented in graphs and probability charts which generates a clear understanding among firms and hence is also favoured by management teams. 2.6 Qualitative Risk Analysis: Qualitative risk analysis forms as primary source of data for further evaluations. It acts as an initial screening for all activities associated with the project to identify the possible risks that may or may not require further analysis (Quantitative). Sometimes managers tend to overlook simple risks which may cause substantial damage while looking for more complex ones which might not be that important. Also studying the project document and technologies used might help identifying certain generic risks. For example, a project which uses widely used or known components poses minimal threats when compared to using first to use or more advanced technology. Qualitative analysis helps prioritizing such risks according to the level they affect the final project objectives. This helps the managers with the decision making on how best they can plan the project in a safe way. While doing qualitative risk analysis, managers generally tend to include their personal and previous experiences in dealing with similar kind of projects or tasks. They asses the importance of risk factors according to their experience. In this process we first identify what are the main sources from where risk can originate. This is done by conducting interviews and getting feedback fro questioners. Then an assessment is done to increase the level of understanding of each risk and the extent to which they could affect the project. For this qualitative risk analysis process there is no probability database required and it is widely used analysis by the organisations. 2.7 Techniques used for Qualitative Analysis: The most common methods of obtaining necessary data for screening risks are: To know the stakeholders and shareholders interests regarding the current project. Collecting critical information from stakeholders and clients to analyze the final objectives in a realistic way. Understanding the organizational structure and policies to carry out the task efficiently. Using effective benchmarking techniques from projects handled previously. Understanding the key objectives and criticality of each task associated with the project to categorize risks according to their importance. However, after collecting the information and assigning the risk factors to different grids or categories, the managers need to decide on the need to go for further investigation and to implement effective risk management plans. In order to do this, every manager should ask themselves a few questions such as: What are the critical phases in the project and where the potential risks are going wrong during that phase? The effect of that risk in carrying out the tasks related to the respective phases and how its delaying the overall project. Weather the potential risks can be eliminated by simple methods or changes in the project plan or they are far too complex to minimize without using further analysis and sophisticated techniques. When a manager could answer these questions, he would be in a position to effectively plan and implement risk aversion plans by using appropriate tools or techniques. The Qualitative risk analysis gives the manager a true power of information to make his decision. Generally the qualitative risk analysis will be succeeded by quantitative risk analysis which gives more insight on numbers such as project period, completion dates and budget. 3. Organisational Risk Analysis: The combination of a threat and the resulting impact to the organisation defines the risk to the organisation. It is an important task that we asses all the intricate issues that the organisation is facing. Only after this assessment we can know the overall risk that the firm is facing and the appropriate counter methods that can be implemented in minimizing these risks. When a risk assessment is carried out we take an over all perspective on behalf of the organisation. We first find out every major business processes that take place in the organisation and then we focus on the situations from where risks would arise. We then provide detailed list to management of the different types of risk involved so that management can counter with them.. The National Audit Office Report Managing Risks to Improve Public Services ( NAO 2004) identified five key aspects of organisational risk analysis and made recommendations for improving organisational risk analysis practice in central government. Sufficient time, resource and top level commitment needs to be devoted to handling risks in an organisation. Responsibility and accountability for risks need to be clear, backed up by scrutiny and robust challenge to provide assurance. In an Organisation, departments need to base their judgements about risks on reliable, timely and up to date information. Risk analysis needs to be applied throughout departments delivery networks. Departments need to continue to develop their understanding of the common risks they share and work together to manage them. An Organisational Risk Analysis is a tool for governance and getting its †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ getting its right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the analysis is †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ getting it right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the assessment is †¦ †¦ analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional: It is episodic, planned and fundamental. Most of the organisational change literature is based on this type of change only. Transformational: It is radical in nature; it requires a change in assumptions made by the organisation and by its people. Using these types of changes and its characteristics can be placed beside two scales: radical- incremental and core- peripheral (Pennington 2003). The diagram above shows us how difficult it is introduce a particular decision into the market and the number of changes that may result in introducing this decision. If major changes are made to the central business then it would initiate a lot of disturbance. The processes that are associated with the core business can be changed as they can be adjusted in the due course of time; this is mostly for firms who are involved with continuous improvement. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team generally use any of the three basic approaches. The database approach The algorithm approach The matrix approach Understanding the strengths and weakness of each method is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. 3.1 The Database Approach: For assessing any kind of organisational risk, compiling a risk database is a popular method. Here each work group is interviewed and the main products and processes are identified where the risks associated with each process are displayed. These are then stocked in a database from where similar reports can be accessed for reference so that the risk faced by the work unit can be analysed. This database approach is chosen by so many accounting firms and it is favoured by them, which may tag it as â€Å"risk profiling †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ the analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ the assessment is a critical first step. Successful audit staffs generally use †¦ †¦ or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organization. THE †¦ †¦ organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional Organisational Risk Management in Project Management Organisational Risk Management in Project Management CHAPTER 2 2.1 Preview This chapter provides the reader about the theory and rationale behind the use of Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) on project management and its methodologies available in the market. It will also cover the work of different authors to afford better understanding of the subjected area i.e. Project management, Risk analysis and Organisational risk analysis. The source of information of this literature review is mainly from books, journals and white papers. 2.2 Introduction Through this literature review one can know what others understanding about this study i.e. nothing but historical perspectives. First part of the literature focuses on project management and risk analysis and risk analysis types, second part of this literature focuses on Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) and Role of ORA in Project management. It mainly concentrates on Project management, risk analysis and organisational risk analysis. 2.3 Introduction to Project Management: PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge as defined by the Project Management Institute — PMI):Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. (PMI 2004) According to James P. Lewis â€Å"The Project management is facilitating the planning, scheduling and controlling of all activities that must be done to achieve project objectives† (James P. Lewis: 2007) PRINCE 2 project management methodology: The planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of the project and the motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the specified cost, quality and performance. A project is usually one time activity with a well defined set of desired and results. It can be divided into subtasks that must be accomplished in order to achieve the project goals. In this day and age also it is assumed that project management can be enhanced by scientific methods. There is a very strong reason why these beliefs are created, it all accounts to the fact that todays modern world has given professionals numerous amount of opportunities to execute their projects successfully. Such are the kind of investment options that are given to project investors. They are briefed with all the minute details so that they feel that their investment is secure. They also make sure that the estimated time of completion and the end can be calculated at the beginning of the project itself. The decisions that are taken on a technical basis or which are taken looking at the low opportunity costs that it presents are reversible in nature. The demand for resources can also be calculated once the initial parameters such as the duration and time frame of the project are estimated. Due to the advancement in technology even the most terrible consequences can be predicted. à ¢â‚¬Å"The failure of the project was due to the lack of skills rather than an inappropriate feasibility, suitability or acceptability of the solution. This is a normal–science view of project management.† (Charette and Robert, 1996) The projection of ideas and activities into new accomplishments are one of the common characteristics of all projects. There are many different definitions of what constitutes project management such as â€Å"An unique set of co-ordinated activities, with definite starting and finishing points, undertaken by an individual or a team to meet specific objectives within a definite period of time, cost and performance parameters† (Office of Government Commerce). (Web4, 2009) J. Pinto and Prescott (1990) stated, â€Å"Researchers in project management need to first and most importantly offer a comprehensive, inclusive, and clear definition of project success before attempting to undertake studies of the project implementation process†. (J.Pinto and Prescott, 1990) The modern project management started in 1950s, before this period projects were executed in an unplanned manner and the methods and tools used for execution were not professional in nature. The importance of project management is a very important topic because all organisations i.e. either be they are small or large organisations, those are involved in implementing new accomplishments. These accomplishments may be diverse, such as, the improvement of an innovative product, introducing a new range of products in a manufacturing base, a promotional advertisement or a major construction project. In the 1980s the focus was more on the quality of work. Globalisation played a huge role in the 1990s as we were trying to improve our economy, the 2000s saw projects with decreased time frames. A new field known as project management was developing from all new areas of application which included construction, engineering, telecommunications, and defence. This emerging field has now become an important part of our economy as it has produced a string of fabulous results. Hence it is now being applied by the corporate world as well as the government. Duncan Haughey (2008) explained some main definitions of what project management is: â€Å"Project management is not a continuous process. It has a definite beginning and end.† â€Å"Project management uses various tools to measure accomplishments and track project tasks. These include Work Breakdown Structures, Gantt charts and PERT charts.† â€Å"Projects frequently need resources on an ad-hoc basis as opposed to organisations that have only dedicated full-time positions.† â€Å"Project management reduces risk and increases the chance of success.† â€Å"Successful project management is delivering your projects on time, to brief and within budget.† (Duncan Haughy, 2008) 2.3.1 Methodology of Project Management: According to Bradley (2002) Project management methodology means â€Å"Project Management Methodology focuses on the project and can be in any industry and any type of projects ranging from construction to aerospace industries and from projects of Financial to IT in nature, it encompasses all projects† The above diagram shows the main components of one of the main project management methodology. Some of the elements like project start-up and project closure occur only once. The remaining elements like planning, managing and controlling, form an interactive cycle that may repeat many times before the completion of the project. In other words we can also say project management is the discipline of planning, organising and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific projects goals and objectives. Each and every project is different in nature. Any project would involve a certain amount of risk and hence require perfect planning and execution if they have to succeed. The main aim of project management is to predict any complications or problems in the project well before hand so that when the project plan is made all these factors can also be taken into consideration and hence the chances of the project being completed successfully would be much higher. Almost every project we do in todays business world involve a risk of some kind: change in customer needs, unrealistic time scales, inappropriate staff, poor project specifications , failure to manage user expectations could delay the project. Projects need to be performed and delivered under certain constraints. Traditionally these constraints have been listed as scope, time and quality. This is also called as ‘project management triangle. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without affecting others. The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project, scope refers to what must be done to produce the projects end result and cost refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. Increasing Scope ( Increasing Time + Increasing Cost Decreasing Time ( Increasing Cost + Reducing Scope Tight Budget ( Increase Time + Reducing Scope. If we modify any of the factors, the other two has to be changed, if not the risk may appear high. But formal risk analysis and risk management can help you to assess these risks and decide what action to take to minimize disruptions to your project plans. According to J. Davidson Frame (2007) the basic outline of project management is described below Project managers bear ultimate responsibility for making things happen. Traditionally, they have carried out this role as mere implementers. To do their jobs they needed to have basic administrative and technical competencies. Today they play a far broader role. In addition to the traditional skills, they need to have business skills, customer relations skills, and political skills. Psychologically, they must be results-oriented self-starters with a high tolerance for ambiguity, because little is clear-cut in todays tumultuous business environment. Shortcomings in any of these areas can lead to project failure. – (J. Davidson Frame, 2007) Project management is discipline that applies to any project; every company has their own way of doing their projects. The project management is not very easy it is totally a leadership position and with technical talent it cannot be done. Project manager without enough experience cannot hold for a long-time on the same project if the assumption of the company goes wrong in selecting the project manager it will be in risk. (Sanjay Murthi, Preventive Risk Management for Software Projects) 2.4 Risk Analysis: The word ‘RISK derives from the early Italian risicare, which means ‘TO DARE. (Websters Dictionary: 1989) One of the most important activities in project management is to identify and manage the uncertainties and problems during the project tenure. When dealing with research and development projects it must be made note of that the number of events present are very high which could alter the course of the project The amount of risk involved in the project would mainly depend on the size of the project. The contractors of the project are the people who deal with the risks of the project, their main duties would involve to identify risks. Then they study them and find as solution so that could remove or minimize them. Apart form this they should also have a clear understanding of the different types of risk involved and ways as to how they can be managed and projects can be completed in a risk free manner. (The Owners Role in Project Risk Management National Research Council (U.S.A). Committee for Oversight and Assessment of U.S. the national academic press, Washington DC). A report that shows assets, vulnerabilities, likelihood of damage, estimates of the costs of recovery, summaries of possible defensive measures and their costs and estimated probable savings from better protection. A risk analysis is the process of assessing the level of risk involved, this is also known as a threat and risk assessment. A threat is a harmful act such as the deployment of a virus or illegal network penetration. A risk is the expectation that a threat may succeed and the potential damage that can occur. (Web1, 2009) Risk analysis allows you to examine the risks that your organization faces. It is the process of systematically identifying and assessing the potential risks and uncertainties that occur when trying to achieve a certain goal (like reaching a target income or finishing a project), and then finding a feasible strategy for most efficiently controlling those risks. ‘The systematic process to understand the nature of and to deduce the level of risk. It provides the basis for risk evaluation and decisions about risk treatment. (AS/NZS 4360:2004 (p. 4). According to Michael R. Greenberg †Risk Analysis ranked among the top 10 journals in the ISI Journal Citation Reports under the social sciences, mathematical methods category is designed to meet the need for organization, integration, and communication and provide a focal point for new developments in the field.† (Michael R. Greenberg: 2008) Evidence from the literature suggests that project managers perform risk analysis because somebody else, e.g. their client, the parent company or the Government, has demanded it (Boothroyd, 1996; Smith, 1998). The analysis of risk is being increasingly viewed as a field in itself, and the demand for a more orderly and formal treatment of risk is great. This international journal is committed to publishing critical empirical research, conference proceedings, and commentaries dealing with risk issues. In other terms we can say the measure of risk can be determined as a product of threat, vulnerability and asset value in an organisation. Risk = Asset * Threat * Vulnerability. Risk analysis may play an important role in cost- benefit studies, which compare the costs of a particular action or project against its potential benefits. It is a systematic study of uncertainties and risks we encounter in business, engineering and many other areas. Risk analysts seek to identify the risks faced by an organization or a business unit, understand how and when they arise, and estimate the impact of adverse outcomes. Techniques used in risk analysis include sensitivity analysis, probability analysis, simulation and modeling. Risk analysis may be used to develop an organizational risk profile, and also may be the first stage in risk management program. Risk analysis may be undertaken to varying degrees of detail depending upon the risk, the purpose of the analysis, and the information, data and resources available. In todays world where competition has become global, it is very important that firms control the different kinds of risk that they are dealing with as it has become an essential part in achieving corporate success. The people who are involved such as customers, investors and others asking companies for complete transparency on their investments. Thus risk analysis is necessary to protect an organisations competitive position. Most industries are particularly plagued by risks, but it has been slow in realising the potential benefits of sound and systematic risk management (Al-Bahar and Crandall, 1990; Ward et. al. 1991; Thomson and Perry, 1992; Flanagan and Norman, 1993; Raftery, 1994; Fellows, 1996; Edward and Bowen, 1998).While coming for the software industries risk analysis and management are a sequential progression that help in guiding a software team in understanding and managing risks. A risk is a potential problem, it might happen, it might not. But regardless of the outcome it is really good idea to identify it, assess its probability of occurrence, estimate the impact and establish a contingency plan should the problem actually occurs. According to Bernstein â€Å"the mystery of risk is a critical step in the development of modern society. One can discuss the validity of his conclusion, but there should be no doubt that risk and uncertainty are important concepts to address for supporting decision-making in many situations†. This Risk Analysis may be qualitative, semi-qualitative or quantitative or a combination of these three, depending on the circumstances. The criticality of risk analysis doesnt wholly depend on identifying the risk factors. It also depends on categorizing them according to their threat level. So let us see how the whole concept of risk analysis starts. There are two types of risk analysis. Both these methods are very important in the assessment of risk and can be executed in any order. It is very important to understand the difference between these two risks as there is a very thin line separating them. Those are: Quantitative Risk Analysis Qualitative Risk Analysis (Identification of types of risk analysis) 2.5. Quantitative Risk Analysis: Quantitative Risk Analysis has become an important component of project management. Quantitative risk analysis attempts to assign independently objective monetary values to the components of the risk assessment and to the assessment of the potential loss. According to Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK  ® Guide, Third edition 2004, Project Management Institute) â€Å"Quantitative Risk Analysis is performed on risks that have been prioritized by the Qualitative Risk Analysis process as potentially and substantially impacting project ‘s completing demands. The Quantitative Risk Analysis process analyzes the effect of those risk events and assigns a numerical rating to those risks.† (PMBOK Guide, 2004) This method gives the project manager a foresight as to how the project would progress if risks associated with it would occur. Hence due to this method the project mangers are able to counter these risks and also account to better execution of projects. A quantitative risk analysis offers the following distinct advantages: much more neutrality is involved in this assessment offers much more advantages to management when compared to assessment techniques More powerful selling tool to management It is very flexible in nature and can be moulded to different situations. It can be adjusted according to the needs of specific industries. Its appeal is very universal in nature and hence does not give rise to much disagreements The base facts of the analysis are very convincing ones. In order to implement quantitative risk analysis, the total estimated value that would account to the losses that would occur due to time delay, theft or loss of data is to be calculated. Then a probability analysis is done so that the chances of the risk occurring can be calculated. After all this is done in the final step the annual loss expectancy is calculated. (Miller). A quantitative risk analysis analyses the results that certain controversial units would have on outcomes that we are most concerned about such as loss, profit and investment returns. Quantitative risk gives different perspectives on different people: To the security consultant: To attract newly started businesses by adapting quantitative analysis to access projects that were out of reach in the past. If the projects met up to the predicted return on investment then it could serve as a better tool for marketing. To the companys upper management: Less vulnerable to company politics time required for assessing proposal validity is very less Inter- relates final results to financial aims and goals. Quantitative risk analysis assists managers in analyzing whether the projects can be completed in a particular time frame and within the required estimated budget. It also helps in finding out the key parameters that would determine the success or failure of the project. It also helps in finding out whether the project is worth investing in for investors. But all these data should have some historical backing otherwise they would be rendered meaningless. These data should be updated from time to time during the due course of the project taking the actual input parameters into consideration. This in other terms is also known as â€Å"Garbage In – Garbage Out. Even though all this is done project management is subject to certain biases. The most basic solution is to collect data from qualitative project management software. This kind of integration has already been implemented and has been successful in the past as well. Quantitative risk analysis tools initiate Monte Carlo process to find out how risks would have an impact on project schedules. The most well known methods for simulating risks and other problems is Event Chain Methodology. In this methodology all the projects tat are present are effected by certain external parameters which could in turn change the face of the project. These events should be analysed with the help of the qualitative risk management software. This is an important aspect as these measures could give rise to event chains that can alter the course of the project. By finding out these event chains the risks involved can be reduced. Quantitative risk analysis is more related to implementing safety measures when compared to qualitative risk analysis is. This risk analysis when implemented by companies tries to protect the firm from every defined risk. It also helps in determining which counter method can be used for minimizing the risks involved with projects. In this method the risk assessments are generally represented in graphs and probability charts which generates a clear understanding among firms and hence is also favoured by management teams. 2.6 Qualitative Risk Analysis: Qualitative risk analysis forms as primary source of data for further evaluations. It acts as an initial screening for all activities associated with the project to identify the possible risks that may or may not require further analysis (Quantitative). Sometimes managers tend to overlook simple risks which may cause substantial damage while looking for more complex ones which might not be that important. Also studying the project document and technologies used might help identifying certain generic risks. For example, a project which uses widely used or known components poses minimal threats when compared to using first to use or more advanced technology. Qualitative analysis helps prioritizing such risks according to the level they affect the final project objectives. This helps the managers with the decision making on how best they can plan the project in a safe way. While doing qualitative risk analysis, managers generally tend to include their personal and previous experiences in dealing with similar kind of projects or tasks. They asses the importance of risk factors according to their experience. In this process we first identify what are the main sources from where risk can originate. This is done by conducting interviews and getting feedback fro questioners. Then an assessment is done to increase the level of understanding of each risk and the extent to which they could affect the project. For this qualitative risk analysis process there is no probability database required and it is widely used analysis by the organisations. 2.7 Techniques used for Qualitative Analysis: The most common methods of obtaining necessary data for screening risks are: To know the stakeholders and shareholders interests regarding the current project. Collecting critical information from stakeholders and clients to analyze the final objectives in a realistic way. Understanding the organizational structure and policies to carry out the task efficiently. Using effective benchmarking techniques from projects handled previously. Understanding the key objectives and criticality of each task associated with the project to categorize risks according to their importance. However, after collecting the information and assigning the risk factors to different grids or categories, the managers need to decide on the need to go for further investigation and to implement effective risk management plans. In order to do this, every manager should ask themselves a few questions such as: What are the critical phases in the project and where the potential risks are going wrong during that phase? The effect of that risk in carrying out the tasks related to the respective phases and how its delaying the overall project. Weather the potential risks can be eliminated by simple methods or changes in the project plan or they are far too complex to minimize without using further analysis and sophisticated techniques. When a manager could answer these questions, he would be in a position to effectively plan and implement risk aversion plans by using appropriate tools or techniques. The Qualitative risk analysis gives the manager a true power of information to make his decision. Generally the qualitative risk analysis will be succeeded by quantitative risk analysis which gives more insight on numbers such as project period, completion dates and budget. 3. Organisational Risk Analysis: The combination of a threat and the resulting impact to the organisation defines the risk to the organisation. It is an important task that we asses all the intricate issues that the organisation is facing. Only after this assessment we can know the overall risk that the firm is facing and the appropriate counter methods that can be implemented in minimizing these risks. When a risk assessment is carried out we take an over all perspective on behalf of the organisation. We first find out every major business processes that take place in the organisation and then we focus on the situations from where risks would arise. We then provide detailed list to management of the different types of risk involved so that management can counter with them.. The National Audit Office Report Managing Risks to Improve Public Services ( NAO 2004) identified five key aspects of organisational risk analysis and made recommendations for improving organisational risk analysis practice in central government. Sufficient time, resource and top level commitment needs to be devoted to handling risks in an organisation. Responsibility and accountability for risks need to be clear, backed up by scrutiny and robust challenge to provide assurance. In an Organisation, departments need to base their judgements about risks on reliable, timely and up to date information. Risk analysis needs to be applied throughout departments delivery networks. Departments need to continue to develop their understanding of the common risks they share and work together to manage them. An Organisational Risk Analysis is a tool for governance and getting its †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ getting its right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the analysis is †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ getting it right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the assessment is †¦ †¦ analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional: It is episodic, planned and fundamental. Most of the organisational change literature is based on this type of change only. Transformational: It is radical in nature; it requires a change in assumptions made by the organisation and by its people. Using these types of changes and its characteristics can be placed beside two scales: radical- incremental and core- peripheral (Pennington 2003). The diagram above shows us how difficult it is introduce a particular decision into the market and the number of changes that may result in introducing this decision. If major changes are made to the central business then it would initiate a lot of disturbance. The processes that are associated with the core business can be changed as they can be adjusted in the due course of time; this is mostly for firms who are involved with continuous improvement. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team generally use any of the three basic approaches. The database approach The algorithm approach The matrix approach Understanding the strengths and weakness of each method is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. 3.1 The Database Approach: For assessing any kind of organisational risk, compiling a risk database is a popular method. Here each work group is interviewed and the main products and processes are identified where the risks associated with each process are displayed. These are then stocked in a database from where similar reports can be accessed for reference so that the risk faced by the work unit can be analysed. This database approach is chosen by so many accounting firms and it is favoured by them, which may tag it as â€Å"risk profiling †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ the analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ the assessment is a critical first step. Successful audit staffs generally use †¦ †¦ or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organization. THE †¦ †¦ organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional

The Saga Of Elian Gonzalez :: essays research papers fc

The Saga of Elian Gonzalez  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  More and more people sail away from Cuba to the United States every year. The usual reason is to move from Fidel Castro and his rules, although many other reasons are obviously important enough for them to risk their lives; a reason like trying to escape from her ex-husband and landing with tragedy. A choice has to be made while dealing with all of the Cuban frustration: do I live or risk my life along with thirteen others? Among the heart wrenching events which happen worldwide every year, few have come close to the well-known saga of Elian Gonzalez and his family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1999, many Cubans left Cuba to sail to the United States. The Coast Guard picked up more than 1,300 rafters; more than double the number in 1998. The distance between Cuba and the mainland is less than 150 miles(Ramo 62). Most fleeing Cubans make the trip from Cuba to America the old fashioned way: in a rickety craft with weak motors. A good trip takes about ten hours, while a bad trip goes on for days. Sailing the Atlantic could be eternal during a storm, as Cubans are swept away. At least sixty people have paid the price of venturing each year(64).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Caught up in freedom fever was Elisabet Gonzalez, who had been dating small-time Cuban hustler, Lazero Munero, since 1997. During the summer of 1998, Munero and three friends made the trip to America on a tiny boat. That fall he went back to Cuba because he was heartsick from his family and Elisabet. A few months after his jail release for escaping, he began persuading Elisabet to join him on a second getaway. He also began to advertise the trip to others in their town at one thousand dollars ahead, then he began patching up an old boat and envinrude fifty horse power outboard motor. When they set out that Sunday, Munero packed rations of water, bread, cheese, and hot dogs for his fifteen passengers. At four thirty A.M. they set to sea with hopes of arriving in Miami before the next sunrise. After less than a mile, the engine failed and Munero returned to shore, while passenger Arianne Horta nervously put her five year old daughter back on land. The group, now fourteen strong, set off again the next morning, but that night during a storm just south of the Florida Keys, the motor failed again. It left the boat more vulnerable to the tumbling seas. The group decided they would be better off by

Daniel Quinn’s Ishmael - Horrifying :: Quinn Ishmael Essays

Ishmael: Horrifying Among the people of your culture, which want to destroy the world? Which want to destroy it? As far as I know, no one specifically wants to destroy the world. And yet you do destroy it, each of you. Each of you contribute daily to the destruction of the world. This truth was stated by a gorilla named Ishmael who, through his experiences of being taken from the jungle, placed in a zoo in the 1930's, put in a menagerie, and bought by a private owner named Mr. Sokolow, had all the time in a world to think about the world around him. Daniel Quinn writes about the horrifying realities of our culture in a book called Ishmael, by stepping outside of the world as we know it and describing what he sees through a talking gorilla. Behind the bars of his cage, he was able to take a look at our culture as an outsider, to see things that we never could. This sagacious, passive, and extremely patient primate wanted to share this knowledge to others so as to stop man from destroying the world. So, he placed an ad in the paper and caught the attention of an eager student, the narrator, who was willing to save the world. Desperately confused, this everyday writer tries to step out of his culture and experience a whole new world. Day after day, this half ton gorilla, Ishmael, opens the narrators eyes and teaches him "how things came to be." He starts out by dividing man into two different cultures. He calls the people of our culture takers and the people of all other cultures leavers. Each culture has a story. In Ishmael's teachings, a story is a scenario interrelating man, the world, and the gods. This story is enacted by the people in a culture. In other words, people in a culture live as to make the story a reality. The first story Ishmael tells is that of the takers. Every story is based on a premise. The taker premise is that the world was made for man. If the world is made for man, then it belongs to him, and man can do what ever he pleases with it. It's our environment, our seas, our solar system, etc. The world is a support system for man. It is only a machine designed to produce and sustain human life.

How does Steinbeck use setting in the novel as a whole to convey important ideas about society and theme? Essay

Setting plays a pivotal role in Steinbeck’s ‘Of Mice and Men’, and it is used frequently to portray central themes, ideas and moods throughout the book to the reader in a subtle understated way. He does this through, for example the setting of the book – which is on the ranch. As readers we don’t go anywhere other than the ranch (and the brush) which summarises the sense of seclusion and isolation enhanced by the town’s name of ‘Soledad’ meaning solitude. This shows an example of the setting being used to underline one of the key themes of isolation and loneliness throughout the whole book. Steinbeck applies this descriptive formula to other locations in the book like the bunkhouse and the barn. The bunkhouse is supposed to display the objective and ‘tool-like’ nature about the ranch, and also reveals facts about the lifestyles of the ranch hands on it. The bunkhouse is very elemental and the ‘bare necessities’ attributes it holds emphasises this tool like attitude towards the ranch hands. The description of the structure is that the walls were ‘whitewashed and unpainted’ – just a protective coating on the walls to keep it structurally intact, not for decoration, but for the necessities of keeping the structure whole. The windows, for example are described as ‘small’ and ‘square’, to cut the costs of expensive glass, and to hint at the idea of an enclosed space, like a prison, which signals the lack of hope associated with the itinerant workers, of which Lennie and George both are examples. But, all these cost saving measures add up to an attitude of utilitarianism – absolutely no excess or lavish ness. This theme can be associated with the migrants – who were treated as tools as they were in huge supply, with fewer job vacancies than job seekers. Each bed has an ‘apple box’ shelf – meaning that the shelves to house the migrant’s possessions have been created out of discarded apple crates. This shows the central theme of absolute cost cutting, as well as signalling the worker’s lack of possessions; they have only a few essential possessions because they move about all the time, and have no real opportunity to obtain and collect a large number of items. Crooks’ Room is another very clear example of Steinbeck using a setting to identify a central theme in his novel. Crooks’ room is a masterpiece of understatement, and its very nature shows how Crooks is different from the other ranch hands. The setting of Crook’s room in contrast to the bunkhouse shows that life is different for him because of society and because he isn’t an itinerant worker – he’s a permanent segregated worker. This segregation is obviously shown through the fact that his room is in a separate room from the other ranch hands, reflecting segregation laws at the time. His amount of possessions is larger in quantity to those of the itinerant worker or ranch worker’s, showing the fact he’s a more permanent worker than the others – ‘scattered about the floor were a number of personal possessions’. His loneliness is shown through a number of features in the room – many of his possessions are work related items, showing his work influence and the importance of work to him, and the loneliness of his character as work is more important than his livelihood. The close alignment with the horses also reflects the main theme of loneliness. The room itself is just a shed off of the horse barn, his bed was ‘a long box filled with straw’ much like a manger, his apple box contained ‘a range of medicine bottles, both for himself and for the horses’. All of this shows the loneliness of Crooks because of racism and segregation that at the time was the social norm; and perhaps Crooks was seen as being on a similar level of respect to the horses. The setting of Crooks and his room is a microcosm for the world – and the setting of the room therefore becomes a pivotal role in getting across these key themes. The setting of the ban in Chapter 5 is also significant for several reasons. Steinbeck’s description of the barn in Chapter 5 immediately follows the scene in which Curley’s Wife argues and tries to flirt with Crooks, Lennie and Candy in Crooks’ Room. This creates contrast to the previous scene’s atmosphere of argument and irritation, with the description of the light filtering through the barn’s cracks. It is a sunny, restful day for most of the men – a ‘Sunday afternoon’, ‘the lazy afternoon humming’. Instead of hours in the field, most of the workers are playing ‘horseshoes’ outside. This peaceful, crisp, soporific feeling is in contrast to the violent encounter between Lennie and Curley’s wife which occurs later in the chapter. The contrast between Lennie sitting in the coolness of the barn with his newly killed puppy contributes to the other view of the barn, and contributes to Steinbeck†™s light and dark motif or idea. The brush also plays a fundamental role in the microcosm of the book, extended metaphors and general themes across the novel. It shows the cycle of settings – all which happen on the ranch or in the brush – the novel ends where it starts. Despite this the values of the settings have changed. Instead of a place of sanctuary, the Garden of Eden, the pool is now a place of death. Instead of animals such as rabbits playing in the brush, the heron is now swallowing the water snake – devouring it. Instead of green leaves and a gentle breeze, there are brown dying leaves and a gush of wind – hallmarks of a storm. Instead of safety for Lennie, there is death, and for George, a future of loneliness without his companionship shared with Lennie. The key themes and motifs built up by previous scenes in the novel are tied up here – the microcosm of life, the loneliness, selfish, cruel brashness of the world. The fact that the cycle of settings is used, that they’re back in the brush at the end as they were in the beginning shows that nothing has changed for the better in George and Lennie’s life, much the same as itinerant workers just like them. It shows the microcosm of life – everyone is selfish and wants to make it on their own that no one actually in the end ends benefiting – in short, if this attitude is held, everyone’s a looser.